By Eleonora Curcio and Lorenzo Lodori

Beer production has a fascinating history, marked by continuous technical developments and innovations. In this article, we will explore the main brewing techniques in the context of the historical periods and cultures that developed them, to better understand how we arrived at the beer we know today.

Antiquity: Mesopotamia and Sumerian Civilization (around 4000 BC)

In ancient Mesopotamia, the Sumerian civilization emerged as one of the first cultures to develop the practice of brewing beer. Around 4000 BC, the ancient Sumerians began cultivating barley and other grains and using them to produce a fermented beverage that approximated the modern idea of beer.

The Sumerian beer production process was closely linked to agricultural practice and the phases of the harvest season. The ancient Sumerians carefully selected the best barley for beer production and ground it to obtain a fine grain suitable for fermentation. The water used in the production process often came from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which were a vital source for the agriculture and daily life of the ancient Sumerians.

Sumerian beer production was a rudimentary process, but sophisticated for its time. Ancient Sumerians mixed ground barley with water to create a paste, which was then left to ferment naturally. This paste would then be poured through straw or reed sieves to separate the liquid solids.

The Sumerians produced beer following a recipe that involved grinding barley and spelt, which was then transformed into a kind of loaf, crumbled, and soaked in water along with other crushed grains. The resulting liquid was heated, cooled, and roughly filtered. This “ancient wort” was then fermented with the addition of honey to increase fermentable sugars and spices, depending on the type of beer produced.

Domestically, the management of beer production was entrusted to women, while in public venues and temples it was the task of specialized personnel. The Sumerians even left behind the first known legal text, the Code of Hammurabi, which regulated the production and sale of beer, imposing severe penalties for those who did not comply with production criteria or opened establishments without the necessary authorization.

Using spelt mixed with different types of barley, beers of various colors and flavors were produced. In the Sumerian economy, workers were entitled to a daily beer ration, while lower-ranking officials received two, and higher-ranking officials (including court ladies) were entitled to as much as five liters.

The beer industry provided employment for many people, with up to 60% of the cost of beer going towards wages.

Once fermented, Sumerian beer was stored in earthenware or stone vessels, where it would be consumed at festivals, religious ceremonies, and other social celebrations. Beer played an important role in Sumerian society, not only as an alcoholic beverage, but also as a central element of ritual and cultural practices.

Sumerian beer production represents an important starting point in the history of beer, marking the beginning of a thousand-year-old tradition that has evolved and spread throughout the world. Although the techniques used by the ancient Sumerians were rudimentary by modern standards, their practice laid the foundation for the later development of beer brewing and helped shape the history and culture of beer as we know it today.

 Antiquity: Ancient Egypt: (around 3000 BC)

In Egypt, beer, known by the term ‘henqet,’ occupied a position of great importance in the daily and religious life of the ancient Egyptians. This drink was mainly brewed using barley or wheat flour, and was characterised by a rather unique production process and the use of specific ingredients that distinguished it from other beers of antiquity.

The preparation of Egyptian beer began with mixing barley or wheat flour with water to form ‘beer breads.’ These breads were then baked only superficially, leaving the inside raw. This was essential, as the inside had to remain raw to allow for subsequent fermentation. Once the half-baked breads were obtained, they were soaked in date liqueur and left to rest for a while, allowing fermentation to take place.

The liquid resulting from this process was then filtered to separate the solid particles. The beer was further enriched and flavoured with ingredients such as date honey, cinnamon, sage and rosemary. These ingredients not only gave the beer a unique flavour, but also helped to improve its quality and preservation. Interestingly, unlike modern beers, the Egyptians did not use hops or sugar caramel. Instead, they preferred to use honey, which increased the alcohol content of the drink, resulting in a variant known as ‘sciadeh.’

Once the flavouring process was complete, the liquid was decanted into containers that were sealed with earthenware stoppers. Despite being carefully sealed, the beer still tended to sour quickly, limiting its shelf life. This was one of the main limitations of Egyptian beer compared to beers brewed in later times, when the technique of malting – improving the stability and durability of beer – was not discovered and applied until much later.

Medieval Period: Europe (5th to 15th century)

During the Middle Ages, beer production in Europe established itself as a fundamental practice for the survival and well-being of local communities. This period was characterized by a rich mix of brewing traditions, with influences ranging from ancient Celtic and Germanic practices to Roman and Byzantine techniques.

Beer production techniques in the Middle Ages were essentially artisanal and were based on relatively simple but extremely effective processes. The process began with the selection and malting of the barley, which was ground and mixed with hot water in a phase called maceration. During this process, the enzymes present in the malt transformed the starches into fermentable sugars, creating a sweet and fragrant wort.

The must was then transferred to fermentation vats, usually made of wood or stone, where yeast was added to start the fermentation process. This step was crucial and required great attention from the brewers, since the fermentation took place at room temperature and control of the conditions was limited. During fermentation, the yeast consumed the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide, thus transforming the wort into beer. This process could last several days or weeks, depending on the environmental conditions and the composition of the must.

Once fermentation was complete, the beer was removed from the vats and often subjected to a maturation or ageing process to improve flavor and stability. At this stage, the beer was transferred to wooden barrels, where it could undergo a second fermentation, acquiring new aromas and distinctive characteristics.

Beer brewing techniques in the Middle Ages were deeply rooted in local traditions and varied greatly from region to region. In some areas, such as Germany and Bohemia, the use of hops as a bittering and preservative agent became increasingly widespread, giving beer a unique taste and longer shelf life. In other regions, such as Britain and Ireland, local herbs were used to impart bitterness and aroma.

Industrial Revolution: Europe (19th century)

During the 19th century, Europe saw a change in beer production thanks to the Industrial Revolution. This period saw the emergence of industrial breweries that adopted new technologies to improve efficiency and meet the growing demand for beer. Traditional wooden fermentation vats were replaced by stainless steel fermenters, allowing greater temperature control and reducing the risk of contamination, increasing production speed and ensuring greater uniformity and quality of the final product. Pasteurization and filtration became common practices, extending the shelf life of beer and improving its aesthetic appearance. Standardization of production processes facilitated large-scale commercialization but threatened the diversity and authenticity of traditional craft beers.

Beer production begins with malting, where barley grains are soaked in water and allowed to germinate, allowing enzymes to transform the starch into fermentable sugars. After a few days, the sprouted barley is dried in a kiln, stopping germination and creating malt. This is then ground and mixed with hot water in a large vessel called a mash tun. During mashing, malt enzymes continue to convert starches into sugars, producing a sugary liquid called wort.

The wort is transferred to a kettle where it is brought to the boil. During this phase, hops are added, which give the beer its characteristic aroma and bitterness. Boiling sterilizes the wort and helps extract flavor compounds from the hops. After boiling, the wort is quickly cooled and transferred to fermenters. Here, yeast is added, which starts fermentation by converting the sugars in the must into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Fermentation can last from a few days to several weeks, depending on the type of beer.

Once fermentation is complete, the beer is left to mature. During this phase, the flavors develop and stabilize. The beer may be matured in stainless steel tanks or, in some cases, in wooden barrels to impart additional flavor complexity. Before bottling, beer is often filtered to remove any remaining solids and yeast. Some breweries also choose to pasteurize the beer, heating it to kill any harmful microorganisms, thus extending its shelf life.

Finally, the beer is bottled or packaged in cans and ready for distribution. During bottling, a small amount of sugar may be added to initiate a second fermentation in the bottle, which gives the beer natural carbonation. This complex and fascinating production process, refined over the centuries, continues to evolve, maintaining a balance between tradition and innovation.

Contemporary Era: Globalization and Craft Beer (20th century – today)

Over the course of the 20th century and beyond, the brewing industry has undergone a series of momentous transformations, shaped by globalization and the renaissance of craft beer. This period brought a real explosion of beer tastes and styles, thanks to the ever-increasing availability of beers from all over the world.

The beating heart of this revolution is craft beer, produced by small independent breweries. These producers stand out for their attention to quality and the use of traditional techniques combined with a pinch of innovation. They are the custodians of an ancient art that has found new life thanks to their passion and experimentation.

But behind every sip of craft beer there is much more. There is a deep commitment to sustainability, with many breweries choosing local ingredients and eco-friendly production practices. This is not only a way to protect the environment, but also a sign of respect towards local communities and traditions.

And there is also humanity at the center of everything. Craft breweries are often small businesses run by passionate people, ready to overcome challenges with ingenuity and dedication. Here, teamwork and attention to people are just as important as producing high-quality beer.

But let’s not forget about innovation. Craft breweries are true laboratories of creativity, always looking for new flavors and styles. From classic ales and lagers to the wildest and boldest beers, there’s always something new to discover.

Creativity finds support in modern technologies, with the advent of Industry 5.0, brewing will see an unprecedented synergy between advanced automation and artisanal customization, allowing unique products to be created on an industrial scale. The integration of technologies such as artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things will enable real-time monitoring and continuous optimization of production processes, ensuring unprecedented quality and sustainability. In addition, the use of big data and machine learning will make it possible to predict consumer trends and quickly adapt recipes and production methods to meet changing market needs.

Incorporating a cobot (collaborative robot) into a brewery can revolutionize various operational aspects. With its ability to handle heavy lifting, such as moving sacks of malt or other materials, the cobot significantly reduces physical strain on human workers. Furthermore, it can be effectively programmed to perform precise and efficient tasks such as packaging and labeling bottles. Its potential extends to monitoring and optimizing production processes, thereby ensuring consistent product quality. The seamless integration of cobots not only enhances operational efficiency but also underlines a commitment to leveraging advanced technology in the pursuit of brewing excellence.

For example, the use of a “digital twin” in a brewery could be employed in several ways. For instance, it could be used to monitor and simulate real-time production processes, enabling operators to identify and rectify potential inefficiencies or issues before they occur. Additionally, it could be utilized to optimize preventive maintenance of equipment, predicting, and preventing breakdowns or unplanned downtime. Furthermore, the “digital twin” could be used to conduct virtual simulations and tests related to new recipes or modifications to production processes, allowing the brewery to assess impacts before making physical changes.

Stay up to date on the use of cutting-edge technologies in the brewing sector of the future, by following the LEONARDO project on LinkedIn (click here).